Spain: Teresa de Ahumada

Teresa de Ahumada She was born in Avila to a prosperous family. From her father’s side were a family of converts ( from Jewish to Christianity). When Teresa was thirteen, her mother died. In 1535, she entered the Carmelite Monastery of the Incarnation, in Avila, where she took her vows as Teresa of Jesus. At this monastery, enclosure (the ideal of The Carmelite Order) was impossible due to the large number of Nuns and its poverty. Visitors had to be received because benefactors were needed. Nuns had to leave to make home visits in order to fill their basic needs such as medical care and food. Teresa herself had to leave three times. First, to get treatment for a sickness; second, to care for her father on his last days before his death; finally, to make a pilgrimage to a Spanish shrine. She also met frequently with visitors. By the age of forty, she began to experience concerning monastic life. After several years, she began to think of having a new monastery built to be able to follow the Carmelite Ideology of maintaining isolation as this would enable them to dedicate themselves to prayer, meditation, obedience, duties, work , etc. When she began to discuss her visions with the staff and other Nuns, she was instructed by her confessor to begin writing about her spitual life and how she came to her goal of reform. By 1562 she founded her first monastery in Avila which was named Saint Joseph. At this time, she completed her first book Libro de la Vida (Book of the Life), her autobiography. From thereon, in the next twenty years, she traveled throughout Spain establishing monasteries for Nuns and Friars and continued writing. Because the monasteries were located farther apart, Teresa began to write about the spiritual directions the order should be taking. She wrote Camino de Perfeccion (1566) (Way of Perfection), how to reach your spiritual goal, Castillo Interior/Las Moradas (1580) (Interior Castle/The Mansions), about contemplative prayer, Las Fundaciones (1573 to 1582) (Foundations) to remember the early history of their order. She also wrote meditations, prayers, and hymns. She wrote a number of letters and most of them are still preserved. Because these writings took place during the Inquisition, they were read carefully by others. Even in her lifetime, her writings and work on the monasteries were known throughout Europe.

By: Richard M.

Spain

Maria de Zayas

Maria de Zayas Beginning in the Sixteenth Century, an increasing number of Spanish women begin writing some time after the Protestant reformation advocating that everybody , including women, should learn to read and write in order to read the Bible. This period should be recognized as the start of the women’s intellectual and educational history that allowed them to read and write. This period was known as Humanism. Out of this era in Spain arose Maria de Zayas y Sotomayor in the 1600’s. She was born in Madrid, Spain, daughter of Infantry Captain Fernando de Zayas y Sotomayor and Maria Catalina de Barrasa. Baptism took place in the church of San Sebastian on September 12, 1590.Maria Zayas belonged to the aristocracy of Madrid. Even though she earned a low salary as a writer, which was typical in her time, she did well due to her aristocratic status. Other than this basic biographical information, little is known about her. It is not known if she ever got married or even had children but her literary work is well-known and translated a number of times. By 1637, De Zayas published her first collection of Novellas, Novelas Amorosas y Ejemplares (The enchantments of Love) in Zaragosa. Ten years later, her second collection, Desenganos Amorosos was published. She also composed a play, La Traicion en la Amistad (Friendship Betrayed). She enjoyed the respect and admiration of some of the best male writers of her time. Among them were Lope de Vega, who wrote poetry dedicated to her and Alonso de Castillo Solorzano, who referred to her as “Sibila de Madrid” (Sybil or prophetess of Madrid). In spite of the popularity of her works, the Nineteenth Century saw them as vulgar. So they faded into obscurity until their rediscovery in the late Twentieth Century. The first book, Novelas Amorosas y Ejemplares describes violence and deception while the second book Desenganos Amorosos describes the abuse of women. The female characters in both books are well-developed character-wise and their experience allows them to freely denounce their inferior role in society. Many of her characters have been wronged by men and have worked to regain their honor. She wrote during the time of the Spanish Inquisition when women were closely monitored and kept from participating in any major decision-making in society. The paternalistic society kept the majority of women confined to the home, the convent, or brothels. Through her writings she presented women as intellectually independent and just as capable as men. She was trying to encourage women to seek independence and for men to educate themselves about violence. This was contrary to the time period.

By: Richare M.

France: Marie Catherine Le Jumelle de Barneville

(1650-1705)

Marie Catherine le Jumelle de Barneville, Baronne d'Aulnoy was an established woman writer who was praised for her works but also scrutinized and thought of as a fraud. Marie Catherine was born in the year sixteen hundred and fifty in Normandy to a poor noble family. Though poor she was soon to transform from rags to riches by marrying a rich suitor. In France when Marie was just sixteen years old she married Francois de la Motte, Baron d'Aulnoy who was at the ripe old age of forty-six. The public knew Baron d'Aulnoy as a Libertine and a reckless gambler. Marie Catherine had three children with him when her husband had been accused of treason. It was said that Marie Catherine’s mother had come up with the whole ploy and accused Baron d'Aulnoy of being a traitor but no one knows why she did it. Marie then had three more children but decided to take a break from the Parisian social scene and traveled to Spain and England. She was gone for nearly twenty years when she decided to return back to France. Once again Marie Catherine was back in the lime light and had a famous solon which had high esteem people that gathered there. She also had Sentiments d'une Ame penitente and Le Retour d'une Ame a Dieu published in sixteen-ninety one. They were two religious writings that were favored by high society and even in Louis XIV's court. Baronne d'Aulnoy began to write many historical books and memoirs about Louis XIV and the Dutch wars. She wrote fairy tales as well which she was loved for. L'Ile de la felicite was her first fairy tale which was incorporated in her three historical novels called Histoire d'Hippolyte, comte de Duglas. Many of her books were very popular and would be until the day of her death in the year seventeen hundred and five. One hundred and fifty years later the French saw her works as dismissive claiming that much of her historical works were fictitious. Many still enjoyed her fairy tale collection which includes Contes Nouveaux ou Les Fees a la Mode and Les Contes des Fees.

By David U

France: Jeanne Marie Bouvier de La Motte Guyon

(1648-1717)

Jeanne Marie Bouvier de La Motte Guyon was born in the year sixteen hundred and forty-eight to a well known family. Although they were not awfully wealthy she married at the age of sixteen to a rich neighbor by the name of Jacques Guyon. Jeanne Marie was not too happy with the marriage and often sneaked off from her husband to pray in solitude. At the age of twenty-eight her husband Jacques Guyon passed away leaving her with three children; two boys and one girl plus a great amount of financial stability. In the year sixteen hundred and eighty-one she decided to walk her own path in the way of the Lord God. She left her two sons with some of her family, took her daughter and left for the Duchy of Savoy. This is where Jeanne Marie met Francois La Combe a Savoyard priest who had a belief in “introspection prayer” which gave people the opportunity for a one on one relationship with the Lord himself. Many people have claimed that Jeanne Marie works were inspired by La Combe and his actions. Jeanne Marie started to write an account on her spiritual life and even wrote Les torrents spirituels which went through her friends first and then slowly circulated to society. Guyon also made comments and pointed out her view on the bible writing reflections that were passed through her friends again and then to the public. All of this was done in secret because it was seen as ludicrous for a woman to have thoughts on the scripture and actually project them out to the public. In the year sixteen hundred and eighty-two Guyon returned to France with the company of La Combe. There was talk of the two of them together and how immoral it was for a Priest and a woman to be running around together with such radical ideas. They were soon arrested and La Combe would spend the rest of his life in prison but as for Jeanne Marie she was set free in the span of about seven months thanks to her wealthy friends. Jeanne Marie continued to write and soon Commentaire au Cantique des Cantiques de Salomon was out which held her views on and her take on the Bible. She was then interrogated for writing about the bible and sent to prison for seven years. When she was released she was ordered not to teach and not to write anymore. Jeanne Marie continued to do both until the day of her death in Seventeen hundred and seventeen.

By David U

England: Aphra Behn

Aphra Behn (1640 – 1689)

Aphra Behn was born in Canterbury in the year 1640 during the hard time of the English Civil War. She was the daughter of a nurse and barber. After an extent of traverling she became Mrs. Behn, but later was windowed. There was little know about her husband. She is consider by most as one of England’s first professional writers. She wrote many plays, some were bad and some good. One of her novels she wrote was Love-letters a story of a Nobleman and his younger sister. During her time she wrote for Nell Gwyn, John Dryden and the Duke of York; two scientific for French. At this time it was unheard of for a woman to write on these subjects.
In 1681 in the last decade of her life, Behn was overwhelm in the fast interest in gender, class and race with all this she was said to be the First Lady of Cultural Studies. Many other women thought about this, but many were too scared to do anything. Some Old Guard believed that Behn was part of a subject of debasement she was here to stay.
Even with her new status many editions of the works on the market, Aphra Behn was not a veneration. Though some still thought of her in this way she was a Troy royalist that believed common people were controlled by a strong whip. The Royal Slave written in 1688 was one of her most famous short story about slavery practice. She believes that a person’s sexual moral was a private matter and no one else’s is business. Behn also believe that the man was not the head of the house or of his kingdom; that a freedom was a lesser of people and anything was except treason.
Aphra Behn was seen to have clear view of her work even when her private life was not was available to the public. Aphra was fascinated in her last years when she became a firm supporter and continues to work with James II in his short reign. Even has she was very sick and it became harder for her to write she would work right up to her the time she died in 1689.

By: Danny C.

England: Anna Doyle Wheeler

Anna Doyle Wheeler (1785 – 1848)

Anna Doyle was born in the year 1785 and was the daughter of a prebendary. Anna did not have any formal education, but did learn to read and write which in fact would help her out in the future. At the very young age of 15 Anna met and married Francis Massey Wheeler, but the marriage only lasted 12 years. While married she sot out books from her husband even the work of philosophers. After she left her husband she went to Guernsey to stay with her uncle. Anna didn’t stay there long she left Guernsey to enroll her two daughters in the school of London.
When her ex husband died in 1820 Anna was left with no means of support, leaving her dependent upon herself she later asked her family for money through her writing she supported herself. Also, she had to translate works of French Owenites and Charles Fourier. Anna was the first to translate these writings from French to English before she could sell them. This was a pretty amazing thing to do where having to translate from one language to another. She also had many friends for support where she sometimes stayed with when she travelled from town to town spreading her feminist views; cities she visited were London, Caen, Dublin and Paris.
While returning to London she met a man by the name of William Thompson. The two became close friends and were part of a social circle that included James Mill, Jeremy Bentham and other operators. Sometime later, Anna moved to France where she began to work on a translation of work with Charles Fourier who she met in France.
In 1825 William Thompson was so inspired by Wheeler and for her being a strong woman he wrote an appeal for women to have equal civil and political rights even voting as a need for women. Thompson later left Wheeler an annuity of 100 lbs in his will when he had died.
The first women to mount a rally in England gave a speech a public speech in London. When Wheeler was 55 years old her health began to decline, she wanted no visitors in her home. In 1848 Wheeler was invited to go to the French Revolution, but was too very sick to attend and later that year she died.

By: Danny C.

ROME: Laura Cereta

Laura Cereta

Laura Cereta was born in Italy in an aristocratic family around 1469. She was a feminist during the renaissance era. Her form of writing was letters to other writers and intellectuals of her time period. She was taught both languages, Latin and Greek which opened many doors for her. When she turned seven years old, she was taken to a convent were she was taught skills such as reading and writing as well as religion. As a child she was very fragile and suffered diverse illnesses. Being the eldest of all six children, at the age of nine years old she went back home to take care of her younger brothers and sisters. At the age of fifteen, she married Pietro Serina. Laura Cereta became a widow after a year and two months of marriage, and pursued a writing career publishing her first set of letters in 1488 titled, “Epistolae familiars.”

Laura Cereta wrote a letter in January 13th of 1488 titled, "Letter to Bibulus Sempronius,” which became one of her best known works. In her letter she talks about her possessing great intelligence just as men did. Cereta also emphasizes that all the previous ideologies about women and their lack of thought and incapability to take care of themselves are wrong.

Laura Cereta argues that women were granted by nature to be outstanding, but they just preferred not to have so many goals. She states that there are two types of women. There are women who have chosen to be animated stones, giving up intelligence and knowledge that would make them wise as men. These types of women according to Laura Cereta are concerned with their appearance; they love dresses, accessories, and spent all day looking at themselves in the mirror. On the other hand, she said there are women who chose to have a profound honor in their personas and desired to be virtuous. These women had opened their ears; restrain their tongues and minds to expose their thoughts. Cereta also states that these women would write letters to intellectual about what was righteous.

Laura Cereta accentuates that wisdom is not granted as a gift or talent; it is a skill that must be developed with education. She stressed that men envied her because of her intellect because it went against all their ideologies. Indeed, men opposed to her writing and went to the extreme of accusing her of plagiarism because a woman could not write that well, neither had the capabilities to learn other languages and write fluently in these, very typical ideologies of these time frame.

By: Iliana L.